Cheramans Parayas

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People, Customs, Ceremonies & Rituals People | Customs People -Cheramans | Parayas | Panans | Velans | Nairs | Christians | Muslims | Jews Cheramans Cheramans are styled in the vernacular Cherumakkal. These  tribes belong to the agricultural community of whom Pulayas are more in number. They have dark complexion and strong physique. The Pulayas in the olden times were extremely loyal to their masters and worked as slaves in their fields. The word Pulayan is said to be derived  from 'Pula' which means pollution. Most of the members of the community do not like to be called Pulayas. They prefer to be called Cheramar. There are a lot of Christian converters among them who were attracted to the Christian faith at a time when the Hindu aristocracy regarded them as untouchables and denied them their legitimate place in the Hindu religious fold. They along with many other downtrodden communities including  the Ezhavas were not allowed on the main streets and to enter temples. The Pulayas had to suffer a lot due to constant conversions and re-conversions thrust on them by the religious leaders  of Hindu and Christian faith. They were so confused about their beliefs that they intermittently visited the Christian church and the Hindu temple and belonged to both the faiths or to neither. Parayas The Parayas are known as remarkable exponents of black magic. In the rural areas they used to be consulted on problems connected with theft and the Paraya magician was supposed to help recover the stolen articles. Some times they would conduct rituals of extremely demoniacal kind and even cause the death to the involved enemies. Their favourite deity which gives them the super natural powers is named 'Purakkutty' whom they propitiate with offerings. The occupation of Parayas was making baskets and mats with bamboo and grass, and umbrellas with leaves of the Palmyra tree. Skinning the animals and selling their hides too was a favourite occupation. The Pulayas and Parayas belong to the labour classes. They were once treated as the sole property of theirlandlords. They were attached to the soil for all their  work.  But the owner of the soil  had the right to sell them or transfer them to another land owner. A Cheruman was bound to stand at a distance of 30 feet from a man of the Superior caste. He was not allowed to cross the prohibited distance and approach a village temple or tank, if this rule was broken, 'punyaham' or purification rite would inevitably follow. The Cherumars had to howl to produce a sound when they passed through the village roads, as a warning so that the others could avoid polluting themselves by keeping away. Pulayas and Parayas enjoy certain strange privileges. One such privilege was known by the notorious name 'Parappeti'. Sanction was given to Paraya by his land lords to enjoy maximum freedom on a particular day in the year i.e. 28th day in the Malayalam month Makaram. On this day the untouchable Paraya was allowed to exercise maximum freedom on the village roads, where his action would never be questioned or retaliated by his master. No female members of the so-called respectable families was allowed by the elders to step out of the home. If any girl accidentally happen to be seen by the Paraya irupathettichar he had the license to carry her away and treat her as his property. Such girls were treated as lost forever by the parents. This practice was in vogue in places like Kuttanadu, where paddy cultivation was the main occupation of the people and the Pulayas and Parayas were to work hard throughout the year to feed the whole country. Now they enjoy a lot of privileges and reservation which they legitimately deserve and they are progressing rapidly. Certain communities have inherited the legacy of the land and its culture to a high degree, but still remain denominated as inferior because of the Brahmin sponsored caste-system. They are the Pulluvans, Panas and Kaniyans who belong to the community of village minstrels, they sing in the village houses as harbingers of a prosperous culture. Pulluvans sing serpent songs with ardent faith in the superior varieties of serpents which are believed to be protectors of the land as its guardians angles. The Pulluvan and his wife, Pulluvati visit village houses on auspicious days like the first of every Malayalam month or the Aslesha (star) day in the month, which is the birthday of the serpent. They sing a song called 'navarupattu' to cast off the evil eye on the children. While singing, the Pulluvan plays on a small violin like instrument called 'Veenakkunju' (small veena) and the Pulluvati sings along with him providing the rhythm by strumming the kutam (an instrument made by covering a pot with a skin of a calf and fixing a string to it). By pulling the string and plucking with a piece of wood or stone a rhythm with tonal variations is created. They also conduct the ceremony of 'Pampin tullal' to propitiate the serpent gods and get their blessings. The Pullavas are not in a position to eke out a living in the present society and so they now go in search of other jobs. Panans Panans are known for their melodious music. The Panan and his wife Patti, visit the village houses at dawn and sing 'tuyilunarttu pattu' (awakening song) to the accompaniment of a percussion instrument called maddalam. The Patti joins him in singing and keeps the beats with a bell metal vessel and with a knife. They were known for making umbrellas with the leaves of the Palmyra tree in the past. Their women used to serve as midwives. They are the descendants of Malayans, the hill tribe, and they go about at the time of harvest from house to house to exorcise evil spirits from the bodies of children. Shiva and Parvathi are their favourite gods who are said to have bestowed boons on their predecessors to earn their lively hood by adopting music as their profession. They used to receive gifts like paddy, coconut, salt, oil, cloth from the village houses. Velans The Velans as well as Vannans and Malayars of Cannanore district were the original dancers of 'Theyyam' or 'Kaliyattam', which is a highly ritualistic dance with its rare and grotesque make-up and costume, lively foot work, gymnastic fervour and ritualistic vitality. 'Teyyam' represents a glorious period of folk life in Kerala and the souls of the dead heroes of the land and the gods and goddesses are supposed to come in our midst through the medium of the possessed dancers and converse with us on matters of even, contemporary significance. The Malayans or the people of Mala (mountain) were the early Teyyam dancers. The tribal communities that were the custodians of the art of dancing were known by different names like Mavelon, Velan, Koppalan. Some of them belong to the Tulu country of the present South Karnataka which once formed the contiguous area belonging to the same cultural heritage. Ezhavas form a major community known as Chovas. In the northern districts Tiyyas also come under this community. They are found all over Kerala basically as a cultivating class. Traditionally they are connected with growing and tapping of coconut trees. The term Chovan is believed generally as a corruption of Sevaka or servant. Ezhavas belong to the working class and they were treated as untouchables. Ezhavas are now a fast improving, gaining strength economically, culturally and politically. Nayars or Nairs Nayars are said to be a Dravidian community who were the military gentry of the land. The most influential territorial unit in the Dravidian set up of administration was a tara which means a ground, a village or a quarter. Nayars include many caste division such as barbers (Velakkittala), washer men (Veluttetattu), oil mongers (Chakkala) templedependants (Marars), Kiriyam is said to be the highest class. Next is Illakkar who served the Illam or the homes of the Nambootiri Brahmins and then Swapuram who served the Kshatriyas. Nayars were treated as the gentry whose main work was to protect the land both in offence and defence. So they were treated as Kshatriyas. They provide a well-knit national militia for the whole land. This was the famous Kalari system. Kalari was the institution which had kept up the martial spirit of the Nayars. Every organisation and the system of inheritance of Nayars were based on 'Marumakkattayam', a system of matrilineal descent. Ezhavas too followed this system. Women enjoyed social freedom and they were married outside their own community, mostly among Brahmin Nambootiris. On a broad basis, the accepted caste division of the Hindu community was into four groups the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras and then the lowest, the out castes. The Malayali Brahmins or Nambootiris and the Tamil Brahmins occupied a very influential position in the caste order, but the Nambootiris always held their supremacy as the purest stock of Hindu hierarchy. Their contributions to Malayalam poetry, drama, astrology, astronomy, medicine and arts are indisputable. There are many Brahmin sub-castes like Ilayatu, Muttatu, Unni, Pisharoti, Nambiti Gurukkal many of whom belong to the Ambalavasi class. A Pisharoti does not wear the sacred thread and so also Warrier. Elayatu is the traditional purohit (priest) of Nayars who conduct the after-death rites for them. They wear the sacred thread and do the puja in the temples, but they are not aristocratic as the Nambootiris. Pushpakas and Warriers are temple employees mainly engaged in making flower garlands for offering to the deity. The Warrier community is famous for their learning in Sanskrit literature. Marans who belong to the community of Nayars, are temple musicians who are main custodians of the Sopana system of music or the music of the sanctum sanctorum of the temple. They are experts in percussion  instruments like Maddalam, Chenda, Edakka. Poduval is another caste of temple musicians. Christians Christianity is said to have found its way, to Kerala by the visit of St.Thomas in the first century AD. The first place where Christians landed was Muzuris which was the most flourishing centre of trade and commerce during that time. Christian missionary activities in the Malabar coast started from the early days of the first century AD and the relation of the present Christians to the soil is as deep rooted as that of any other community. The Syrian Christian church is the oldest church in the whole of  India. There are several denominations of Christians based on doctrinal disputes. All the different sects like Jacobite Syrians, Orthodox Syrians, Marthoma Syrians, Latin Catholic, Syrian Catholics differ on many minor points of their faith and practice, but hold their allegiance to Jesus Christ with utmost enthusiasm and devotion. Muslims Mohammedans form a flourishing community. They came to the ports of Kerala from Arabia and gained influence mainly in Calicut in the beginning. They grew strong in population and mingled with other communities not only in matters of trade but also in the local customs and usages. They now wield very high political power in spite of their position as a minority and this status quo is maintained in at least a dozen political constituencies enjoying the privileges of a minority. The community is making rapid social and cultural progress. Jews The contact of the Jews with Kerala coast has a long history beginning as early as the time of Moses, the great Jewish-law giver. Their maritime and commercial contacts steadily continued and developed. Jewishsettlements came up in many coastal centres, one in Baypur. They paid tribute to the local rajas, who conferred on them certain privileges and ranks. Their earliest settlement was at Cranganore. Later they came to Cochin where they built the famous Jew town and the Synagogue in 1567. Though they form only a negligible minority their contact with the land is long and marked. link

Dalit denied permission for higher studies in Kerala

 CTC Bulletin

Dalit Theology Of Liberation

Justin Raj by Convenor, Dalit and Adivasi Concern committee, CSI Synod
President, Christian Dalit Liberation Front

In the Kerala theological circles, where the Syrian Christian domination is at its height, dalit candidates who apply for admission to post-graduate and doctoral research studies are denied admission. Therefore, the Church in Kerala could so far not produce more than five M.Th. degree holders. The discrimination against caste is so rigid that not even a single dalit person could be admitted to research studies leading to doctoral degree. An interesting incident that took place recently to this effect may be mentioned. Among a few candidates who applied for D.Th. admission to the Federated Faculty for Research in Religion and Culture (F.F.R.R.C of the Senate of Serampore College), Kottayam, Kerala, one was a dalit. In spite of the fact that his performance in the entrance examination was good and he had satisfactorily fulfilled all other admission requirements like publication of scholarly articles and books, book review and guaranteed all financial commitments, he was mercilessly denied admission to which no reason was given. In fact he was the only one who had a number of publications to his credit and his answer papers were adjudged best. Why was such a person denied admission to an advanced course of study? The sufficient reason for the members of the admission committee constituted predominantly by Syrian Christians to deny admission to the particular person was that he was a dalit and his proposed research work was on dalits.

As mentioned above another reason for denying admission to the dalit candidate was that they feared the proposed research work would come out with shocking revelations of the cruelties done to the dalits in general and to the Christian dalits in particular within the Indian Church. Since the Christian media is controlled and dominated by the powerful oppressing community we, the dalits of the Christian Church are denied all opportunities of expressing our mind. An example to this effect may be mentioned in this context. An article on dalit theology had been sent to the editor of the Christava Deepika, the official magazine of the South Kerala Diocese. The editor outrightly refused to publish it simply because it was on dalits. This is dalit’s emotions and feelings are suppressed by the dominating community within the Indian Church. In this way the world community is prevented from hearing the feeble voice of our cries.

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Dalit Consciousness and its perspective on the basis of PRDS History in Kerala by R. Prakash

The prominent scholars of Kerala History have mentioned about the Sree Narayana Movement. But they have not sufficiently assessed the inherent weakness in that movement. Nor have they assessed the Ayyankali Movement and P. R. D. S., the movement of the Dalits. For the first time in India, Ayyankali gave leadership to the open struggle of the Dalits. Ayyankali was born in 1863 in venganoor in Trivandrum.  He experienced from childhood, the bitter effects of the caste distinction. He was illiterate. Yet he openly came forward to fight for the right of the Dalit people. In 1863 he went about in a Villuvandy as an open protest against the denail for freedom of movement. The Chaliya street upheavel in 1898 for freedom of movement and the riots in Nedumangad market in 1912 were significant. In 1907, the First Dalit Organisation-“Sadhujana Paripalana Sangham”-was formed for the first time in India. This samgham led many struggles The perinattu riot for school admission, the discarding of “Kallumala” that the pulayas had worn as part of the caste regulation that hurt their pride and similar activities were also significant. The subject of conversion to christianity was not directly connected with Ayyankali Movement. But Vellikkara Chothi and Pampadi John Joseph who had co-operated with the movement had viewed this as an important issue. That was why, John Joseph, Dalit Christain had furthered the formation of Cheramar Mahajana Sabha (1921). It was part of a movement against the discrimination by the upper castes that prompted him to form this organisation for uniting exclusively the pulayas (Cheramar). This movement later created adverse effect to the unity of the Dalits. Similarly we find in Swami Subhananda, the first Dalit, Sanyasi, a level contrary to the effect produced by the conversion of the Dalits to Christainity. He was a Dalit Christain by name Pappan Pathrose. He went to Tapogiri in Cheenthalor and did penance and accepted the life of a Sanyasi. He organised ‘Athma Bodhodaya Sangham” (1931). It was a Kerala version of religious reformatory movement like Sree Narayana Movement among dalits. But sorry to say it was also an another movement for Hindu revivalism.

 

Reference has been directly and indirectly made to the conversion of Dalits of Christianity, we have to examine the influence it has on the self-consciousness and identity to the Dalit people. It was for the first time that the community of Dalits, that was free from religion, was subjected by Christianity to come to the fold of religion. It was through conversion that they changed from tribal traditions to organised practices and worship. Such change was the first that they had to undergo. It is beyond doubt that the kind of approach to the Christian missionaries on the one way and the oppression of the upper castes, on the other was persuaded them in their conversion. We have to Examine the social and political implications of this conversion to Christianity and took. Place by the end of the 19^th century. Conversion took the place as part of the movement for colonisation. We notice in history the downfall of the supermacy of an “agent class” the Nairs in Kerala during the regions of Marthanda Varma in Travancore, Sakthan Thampuran in Kochi and Tippu Sulthan in Malabar. The failure of the armed insurrections of Veluthambi and Paliyathachan accelerated this downfall. At this stage, it was the need of the English Ruler’s to create a class of “agents/workers” for their administrative purposes and motto. That was why the Christian missionaries were sent into the social field of Kerala. At that stage in history, they could not give rise to a prestigious social class. Yet the converted class could in those days function as a powerful sociological group.

 

But it may be concluded that, really the conversion never did not encourage the development of the Dalit orginality/identity. It created and identity crisis (Ninety percent of the converts belonged to the Dalits) It was the context of this identity crisis, there P.R.D.S. emerged. In other words P.R.D.S. faces the identity crisis of Dalit conversion. Hindu supremacy had no affected the Dalit Christians in this sense. It had existed as an oppressive socio-political institution. The powers of Hindu supremacy closed door before the Dalits, the doors of higher knowledge called to be of Hinduism. So the critical situation created by the identity crisis resulting from the Dalit conversion faced by P.R.D.S. was singular. Amid it did not face similar situation ever posed by Hinduism.

The advent  of P.R.D.S. was not a chance occurrence. It was the effect and teachings of Poikayil Sree Kumara Guru Deva, Poikayil Appachan, the founder of P.R.D.S. that gave life to this movement.

 

At that time Kerala was compraised of three Independent Kingdoms. The founder of P.R.D.S. was born on 5^th of Kumbham 1054 M.E. as a slave to Syrian Christian family by name Sankaramangalam family. ‘Kandan’ and ‘Lechi’ were his parent. They gave him the name of ‘Komaran’ later was changed to ‘Kumaran’. Kumaran had to do the slavish work of Sankaramangalam household. Because his master followed the Christain faith, the slave boy kumaran had to become a Christain faith, the slave boy Kumaran had to become a Christian by name Yohannan. He learned reading and writing. It was at that time that he came to know of the Bible. In those days, the dalit divisions like Parayas, Pulayas and Kuravas practised untouchability among themselves. From boyhood, the awareness that Parayas, Pulayas and Kuravas were his own people when he became mature. Yohannan left the Sankaramangalam family and trade farewell to his mother. He set out to organise his people. He felt that he had to work within the Christian religion in order to be one with his people who had embraced Christian religion. Then he joined the Marthoma Church. But Yohannan was intimated by the discrimination that witnessed in that church. Dalits were second rate members in that church. One day, the dead body of a default Christian was buried in the burial ground of the church. The same night the leaders of parish got the dead body out. This caused much commotion. Thus Yohannan left the Marthoma Church. Then be worked in the “Brother mission” and the separatist sect. There also he confront discrimination. So be turned away from them. By this time, Yohannan came to be widely known as a Christian teacher (“updates”) He had preached. The messages from the Bible in many places. But soon it became clear that these preaching and activities were a disguise. Yohannan used the Bible itself as a disguise. Yohanna ‘Upadesi’ was vehement in defying the false Bible culture among the dalits. This defiance led him to leave different christian groups. His subsequent activities were secretive and disguised. He organised meetings in open places, market places and by the side of roads many of dalits stood and united behind him. There were attacks on many meetings. The meetings of ‘Kuzhiparampil Pathrose’ a dalit christian were subjected to attacks. The topics of his speeched were “sons of wickedness and sons of God” and seven churches in Asia and the like. His orations were ironical. The attack on a thronged meeting at ‘Othara’ (in Pathanamthitta district) was a major incident that time. The meeting was in ‘Pandal’ with hanging hurricane lamps. The upper caste people smashed the lamps and set fire to the ‘Pandal’. The audience in defence and Yohannan upadesi went up to a tree and spend night long spent at it. On another occasion when the high caste people were haunting for him, Yohannan had to hide himself under water in a streamlet. When the meeting at Muthalapra was attacked Yohanna upadesi escaped in the guise of a women. There followed a procession of assaults. In many places like Vakathanam, Vellanidi, Kozhukachira, Mangalom meeting were disrupted. If the attack on the meetings at Vettiyadu, a women was killed. It was at this time that the famous Maramon convention was boycotted. A rebel meeting was convened at Muthalapra. Fire was kindled and thousands Bible was thrown into it. Every one was asked to do so. Thousands of copies of Bible were thrown into fire. All these provoked the leaders of the Christian Churches. They appointed an enquiry commission Sri. K. V. Simon, a poet and preacher was a member of the commission. In his book ‘The History of the Separalist churches of Malankara” he devoted a chapter “The work of Poikayil Yohannan and P.R.D.S. to deal with the dalits, According to him “……….. just as Pumchaminnil Mammen Upadesi rose in the Marthoma Church in the wake of the upheaval of removal, a ceratin Poikayil Yohannan rose among the untouchables who were with the sperrylites. He  was a convert from the Paraya community and a serf to the Sankaramangalam family of Eraviperoor. At last he became a member of this (the separatist church) preached some new doctrines and misled many including two prominent members. Thus he attempted form a new organization. The main aim of Yohannan and his associated was to do away with Caste distinctions…….” Reference is also made to the objectives and doctorine of Yohannan.” The Bible is not for this time or this generation. The Church should end in this world with the end of the periods of the Apostles. Among the generations form that time to the present there is not a single one who has been slaves…..” There is no second coming and no thousand year region….” As a result of these doctrine, many of those who had formerly termed themselves “Saved ones” needing nothing more than the sermons and doctorines of Yohannan.  Sp they burned the Bible in bulk. The word of Yohannan was the law for anything.

 

Thus the Dalits in crowds rallied behind Yohannan and causes much cemmotion. They grace up work on land and in field and champed at sites of meetings. They went from one meeting to another. The land lords were in trouble because they had no one to labor in land and in fields. They tried to frame false cased against him and to kill him. Thus they moved against the ‘peace rally’ at Maramkulam.  They complained to the courts that Yohannan was speaking against the British.

 

 If yohannan was produced before the Second Class Judicial Magistrate at Changanacherry. During the trial, the Magistrate wanted to know the name of his ‘Sabha’. In reply he gave the name “Prathyaksha Raksha Daiva Sabha”-PRDS . This was in 1910. But the doctorines and activities of the Sabha had already started.

 

“Extract from circular No. 9/1962 Published from the head office of P.R.D.S. on 18.11.1962 page 9,10)

 

In 1908 Yohannan got himself divorced from all Christian denominations and started working independently. He convened a meeting and Kulathoor in Mallappally (Pathanamthitta District) and Introduced the subject “Guarantee of Salvation” (Raksha Nirayam) He spoke about the early history of Dalits, their lost prestige and spiritual cultural identity regeneration. Here the conducted meeting like Thothu Yogam and Thrithwa Yogam”. The meeting continued for months and Dalits largely took part in them. They called Yohannan “Appachan” to mean that he was their saviour. The recognised as their teacher and their guide. All the while disruptive activities were gaining strength among Dalits in Kerala. In the first meeting of Cheramar Mahajana Sabha at Podipara, Eraviperoor in Pathanamthitta Dist., Kerala on4.1.1921 Appachan spoke strongly agaisnt such activities.

 

It has already been mentioned that the activities of Poikayil Yohannan, the founded of P.R.D.S. was disguised. He used Bible verses to deceive the high caste people. He defied the same tactfully. Yohannan complied many songs with this meaning. They derived the wisdom of the Bible. For example one of his sing says:

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History of Kerala

The earliest inhabitants of Kerala were the Pulayas, Kuravas and Vetas. It is at a much later time that migratory Aryan populations from the north landed and subjugated them through caste system. By the beginning of the Christian era, the Cheran Dynasty was spread up to Western Ghats. The armies of Mauryan Dynasty could not enter the lands of the Cheras. With time the rule of Cheran Dynasty declined, it coincided with the rise of the Brahmins in Kerala. By the 10th century, they were powerful entity from Gokurnum (North Kerala) to the Cape Comorin. These land owning class of Brahmins were well on their way to great wealth and power. To consolidate their power, they developed Caste System (segregation between classes of people). Lands were leased out to next higher castes for share-cropping, and these in turn would further be leased out to those lower on the caste hierarchy and to non-Hindus. The lowest castes of course were only laborers and were traded along with the land. In such a rigid hierarchy, the all-powerful Namboothiries were the unquestioned rulers.

The Christians who had arrived from the Middle East in the 3rd century AD and the Muslims who arrived in the 8th century were generally traders and were not involved in this social segregation and generally kept aloof from the ambit of caste politics. The Jews who arrived Kerala in the early years of the Christian era were given privileges to trade and became an influential part of the melting pot of Kerala's population.

 Gradually Kerala entered a phase of feudal chieftains or warlords (naduvazhis). The Namboothiries anointed some. At the turn of the 11th century AD there was a power struggle in the caste system supported by the Landlords and ruled by the warlords. This in turn gave rise to instability in the absence of strong central leadership. Wars and conflicts were common.

Ultimately three warlords emerged with some semblance of authority in their regions - the Zamorin of Calicut (Samuthiri of Kozhikode) to the North, Moopins of Perimpadappu (near modern day Kochi) in the central regions and chieftain of Kollam.

This is precisely what the Europeans who found a sea-lane to the fabled land of spices and gold did. There was nothing anyone could do to stop the next five centuries of colonial rule.

Discovery of India - European conquest

Ancient Kerala occupied a unique place in the commercial world. There are traces of teak found in the ruins of Ur, which must certainly have come from the Malabar Coast. This means trade flourished around 3000 BC. Cotton from this region was a favourite in Egypt; the Phoenicians visited the coast of Malabar around the same time to trade in ivory, sandalwood and spices. King Solomon is said to have sent his commercial fleet to Ophir which is said to be somewhere in Southern Kerala.

Muziris (Kodungalloor or Cannonade) was reputed to be the ancient world's greatest trading center in the East for such highly prized possessions as pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, ginger and other spices. Pliny, the younger is said to have lamented the fact that trade with the East was draining the treasury of Rome. The trade flourished by ships riding on the monsoon winds from Africa and back to Arabia, from where the overland caravan took the prized items to the markets along the Mediterranean ports.
India was known as fabled land of spices and gold. It was during this time Europe was busy in exploration and Voyages to unknown land. Route to India was a dream of most of the voyager. Many attempts were made, but most could reach only up to "Cape of Good hope" in Africa. In 1498, Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese naval Captain found the easiest way to India by bribing the Arab pilot when his ship anchored off Kenya at Port Malindi. Following the centuries old route taken by the Arab traders and riding on a monsoon wind, he sailed the Sao' Gabriel to land at Kappad near the town of Calicut or Kozhikode. The entire history of the East was to change from that day. 

The Zamorin or Samuthiri received the Portuguese, (known locally as parungees) warmly. Trade concessions were granted to the Portuguese. But sensing the rivalries from the Arabs and the local kings, the Portuguese immediately set about engaging themselves in consolidating their positions at sea. There was resistance from the local Kings.  Notable among the Samuthiri's Admirals is Kunjali Marakkar, still a revered hero in Kerala. He succeeded in checking the Portuguese expansionism to certain extent. But could not hold for long against the supremacy of Portuguese weapons and sea prowess. An interesting sidelight is the Portuguese behavior towards the thriving community of Christians in Kerala. Tradition has it that these Christians were converted by St. Thomas the Apostle in the 1st Century AD. The Portuguese were annoyed that the local Christians were more Hindus in their outlook, culture and traditions and never heard of the Pope in Rome. In 1599,the Synod of Diamper (present day Udayamperoor near 14 Kms from Kochi) decreed that all Christians should revert to the Pope in Rome as the Supreme Spiritual head and not the Pontiff at Antioch. This led to a revolt by a section of Syrian Christians. History depicts that the revolters took oath by tying themselves to a Cross-at Kochi on 15 January 1653. This is known as the "Koonan Cross Oath" and is still revered as a turning point among the Syrian Christians. 

But the Portuguese had some success in proselytizing and did manage to convert some communities into Latin Catholics. Today this community is one of the influential sections in Kerala.

Arrival of Dutch

The Portuguese finally met their match in the Dutch. The Dutch known locally as Lanthakar, was in the race for evicting the Portuguese from the lucrative Eastern spices trade. Strategic alliance with the Samuthiri helped the Dutch to drive out the Portuguese once and for all by 1663.

They proclaimed the Kochi Maharaja as the titular head and drove the Portuguese out. With aim of total control over the Eastern Spices trade, the Dutch East India Company was set up in 1602. Stefan Van Hegena set sail with 13 ships and reached Kannur (Cannanore) in 1604.

But from then on it was the same old story of the former allies falling out. This phase ended with the Dutch gaining undue advantages and gaining foothold over most of the coastal areas and towns, prominent being Kannur and Kochi. By 1717 a treaty was established. But it could not save the Dutch from defeat in 1741 at the hands of a resurgent king of Thiruvithanmkur, Marthanda Varma in the battle of Kolachel. By 1795, the Dutch were so weakened, that the British did not have much trouble evicting them permanently from the Kerala landscape once and for all.

The Portuguese and the Dutch introduced many novel agricultural crops to Kerala, notable among them being pineapple, papaya, tapioca, rubber and scientific farming methods for coconuts. To this day, the Kerala farmers are critically dependent on these crops for survival in the agrarian economy of the state. 

The Bolgatty palace at Kochi, the Dutch Governor's mansion (later the British Resident's mansion) and the Dutch Palace at Mattancherry, Kochi are some of the reminder of Dutch conquest on India soil.

During this time, the most famous ruler was Marthanda Varma, King of Thiruvithamkur. His success started with the subjugation of the local warlords and Dutch. Later he expanded his rule by subjugating all principalities of the southern tip of Kerala up to Kodungalloor up in the North.

He was a great warrior and administrator. He carried out revolutionary reforms in his kingdom like converting the captured lands into state lands, centralising foreign trade to generate government incomes, improving living conditions of farmers, and most importantly reducing the powers of the government servants who till then were exclusively from certain castes and families. He took an unusual step of employing competent people from all castes and for the first time recognised competence over birthright.

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